Introduction
Food is made up of thousands of naturally occurring compounds, each with its own structure, function and role. Some are essential for life, while others contribute to colour, flavour, aroma, preservation, plant defence or interactions with the human body and gut microbiome.
This guide organises these compounds into major categories to make nutrition terminology easier to understand. It is intended as an educational reference rather than a dietary guide or health claim resource.
Each section introduces a group of compounds, their main subclasses, representative examples and common food sources. It also explains terms frequently used in nutrition, biochemistry and food science literature.
Whether you are a student, health professional or simply curious about nutrition, this guide provides a structured overview of the chemistry that makes food far more than just protein, carbohydrates and fat.
How This Guide Is Organised
The guide is divided into nine major sections:
- Essential Nutrients — the compounds required for human life.
- Plant Bioactive Compounds — protective chemicals produced by plants.
- Animal Bioactive Compounds — compounds unique to animal foods.
- Bee Compounds — the remarkable chemistry of honey, pollen, propolis, royal jelly and beeswax.
- Mushroom Compounds — fungal molecules with unique biological functions.
- Gut & Functional Compounds — compounds that interact with the microbiome and digestive system.
- Organic Acids & Pigments — compounds responsible for flavour, acidity and colour.
- Cross-Cutting Factors — how cooking, digestion, food processing and bioavailability influence these compounds.
- Anti-Nutrients & Protective Compounds — natural defence chemicals, their biological roles and how traditional preparation methods influence them.
How to Use This Guide
Each section includes:
- Major compound groups
- Important subclasses
- Common examples
- Typical food sources
- Biological roles and key characteristics (where relevant)
Together, these sections provide a foundation for understanding the compounds discussed in nutrition, gut health and food science.
1. Essential Nutrients
Essential nutrients are compounds required for normal growth, development and physiological function. Because the body cannot produce enough of these compounds or, in some cases, cannot produce them at all; they must be obtained through food and water.
The six classes of essential nutrients are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids (fats), vitamins, minerals and water. Together, they provide energy, build and repair tissues, regulate metabolism, support immune function and maintain the body’s structure and internal balance.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are the body’s primary source of energy and also provide structural support and dietary fibre.
Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates and cannot be broken down into smaller sugars.
Glucose: The body’s preferred source of energy and the primary fuel for the brain, muscles and many other tissues.
Food Sources: Fruits, honey, vegetables and foods containing starch.
Fructose: A naturally occurring sugar that provides energy and is primarily metabolised by the liver.
Food Sources: Fruits, honey and some vegetables.
Galactose: A sugar that combines with glucose to form lactose, the main carbohydrate in milk.
Food Sources: Milk and dairy products.
Mannose: A simple sugar involved in the formation of glycoproteins that support normal cell function.
Food Sources: Cranberries, peaches and some legumes.
Disaccharides
Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharides joined together.
Sucrose: Common table sugar that is broken down into glucose and fructose during digestion.
Food Sources: Sugar cane, sugar beet, fruits and maple syrup.
Lactose: Milk sugar composed of glucose and galactose.
Food Sources: Milk, yoghurt and other dairy products.
Maltose: A sugar produced during the breakdown of starch.
Food Sources: Malted grains, sprouted grains and beer.
Trehalose: A naturally occurring sugar that helps protect cells from dehydration in plants and fungi.
Food Sources: Mushrooms, yeast and shellfish.
Oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharides are short chains of sugar molecules that function primarily as prebiotics.
Raffinose: A prebiotic carbohydrate that nourishes beneficial gut bacteria but may also contribute to gas production.
Food Sources: Beans, cabbage, broccoli and whole grains.
Stachyose: A prebiotic carbohydrate that supports beneficial gut microbes.
Food Sources: Legumes and soybeans.
Fructooligosaccharides (FOS): Prebiotic fibres that promote the growth of beneficial gut bacteria.
Food Sources: Garlic, onions, asparagus, bananas and chicory root.
Galactooligosaccharides (GOS): Prebiotic carbohydrates that help support a healthy gut microbiome.
Food Sources: Human milk, legumes and dairy products.
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are long chains of glucose or other sugars that provide energy storage or structural support.
Starch: The primary storage carbohydrate in plants and a major source of dietary energy.
Food Sources: Potatoes, rice, corn, grains and legumes.
Glycogen: The storage form of glucose in animals that provides a rapidly available source of energy.
Food Sources: Present in small amounts in fresh meat and shellfish.
Cellulose: An insoluble dietary fibre that supports digestive health and bowel regularity.
Food Sources: Vegetables, fruits, legumes and whole grains.
Hemicellulose: A dietary fibre that contributes to digestive health and feeds beneficial gut bacteria.
Food Sources: Whole grains, vegetables and legumes.
Pectin: A soluble fibre that forms a gel in water and may help support healthy cholesterol and blood sugar levels.
Food Sources: Apples, citrus fruits, berries and plums.
Proteins
Proteins are large molecules made from amino acids. They build muscles, organs, enzymes, hormones, antibodies and many other structures throughout the body.
Essential Amino Acids
Essential amino acids cannot be produced in sufficient amounts by the body and must be obtained from food.
Histidine: Supports growth, tissue repair and the production of histamine.
Food Sources: Meat, fish, poultry, dairy and legumes.
Isoleucine: Supports muscle metabolism, energy production and immune function.
Food Sources: Meat, eggs, dairy, legumes and nuts.
Leucine: Stimulates muscle protein synthesis and supports muscle repair.
Food Sources: Meat, dairy, eggs, soybeans and whey protein.
Lysine: Supports collagen formation, calcium absorption and immune function.
Food Sources: Meat, fish, dairy, legumes and quinoa.
Methionine: A sulfur-containing amino acid involved in detoxification and the production of other important compounds.
Food Sources: Eggs, fish, meat, sesame seeds and Brazil nuts.
Phenylalanine: Used to produce neurotransmitters involved in mood and nervous system function.
Food Sources: Meat, dairy, eggs, soybeans and nuts.
Threonine: Supports collagen, elastin and digestive health.
Food Sources: Meat, dairy, eggs and legumes.
Tryptophan: Used to produce serotonin, melatonin and niacin.
Food Sources: Turkey, eggs, cheese, seeds and oats.
Valine: Supports muscle repair, energy production and nervous system function.
Food Sources: Meat, dairy, soybeans and legumes.
Non-Essential Amino Acids
These amino acids are normally produced by the body.
Alanine: Supports glucose metabolism and energy production.
Food Sources: Meat, fish, poultry and legumes.
Asparagine: Supports nervous system function and protein synthesis.
Food Sources: Asparagus, potatoes, dairy and meat.
Aspartate: Participates in energy production and amino acid metabolism.
Food Sources: Meat, soybeans and asparagus.
Glutamate: The most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain and a building block for proteins.
Food Sources: Meat, cheese, tomatoes and mushrooms.
Serine: Supports cell membranes, nerve function and protein synthesis.
Food Sources: Eggs, soybeans, meat and peanuts.
Conditionally Essential Amino Acids
These amino acids are normally produced by the body but may become essential during illness, injury or periods of rapid growth.
Arginine: Supports nitric oxide production, blood flow and wound healing.
Food Sources: Meat, nuts, seeds and legumes.
Cysteine: A sulfur-containing amino acid used to produce glutathione, one of the body’s major antioxidants.
Food Sources: Poultry, eggs, dairy and garlic.
Glutamine: The most abundant amino acid in the body, supporting intestinal cells and immune function.
Food Sources: Meat, eggs, dairy and cabbage.
Glycine: Required for collagen production and connective tissue health.
Food Sources: Gelatin, bone broth, meat and fish.
Proline: Supports collagen formation and wound healing.
Food Sources: Meat, dairy, gelatin and eggs.
Tyrosine: Used to produce dopamine, adrenaline, noradrenaline and thyroid hormones.
Food Sources: Cheese, meat, fish, dairy and soybeans.
Lipids (Fats)
Lipids are a diverse group of fat-soluble compounds that provide energy, form cell membranes, produce hormones and enable the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.
Fatty Acids
Saturated Fatty Acids
Palmitic Acid: A common saturated fat used for energy and cell membrane structure.
Food Sources: Meat, dairy products and palm oil.
Stearic Acid: A saturated fat used for energy and cell membranes.
Food Sources: Beef, cocoa butter and dark chocolate.
Monounsaturated Fatty Acids
Oleic Acid (Omega-9): A monounsaturated fat that may help support cardiovascular health and healthy cholesterol levels.
Food Sources: Olive oil, avocados, almonds and macadamias.
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
Alpha-Linolenic Acid (ALA): An essential omega-3 fatty acid that supports cardiovascular health and can be converted into EPA and DHA in limited amounts.
Food Sources: Flaxseed, chia seeds, walnuts and hemp seeds.
Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA): An omega-3 fatty acid that may help support healthy inflammatory responses and cardiovascular health.
Food Sources: Salmon, sardines, mackerel and anchovies.
Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA): An omega-3 fatty acid that is a major structural component of the brain and retina.
Food Sources: Oily fish, algae and fish oil.
Linoleic Acid (LA): An essential omega-6 fatty acid required for normal growth, skin health and cell membranes.
Food Sources: Sunflower seeds, safflower oil and walnuts.
Arachidonic Acid (AA): An omega-6 fatty acid involved in cell signalling, immune responses and muscle growth.
Food Sources: Meat, eggs and poultry.
Triglycerides
Triglycerides: The body’s primary storage form of fat, providing a concentrated source of energy and insulation.
Food Sources: Animal fats, vegetable oils, nuts, seeds and dairy.
Phospholipids
Phosphatidylcholine: A major component of cell membranes and a source of choline for brain and liver function.
Food Sources: Egg yolks, soybeans and liver.
Phosphatidylserine: Supports cell membranes, particularly in the brain, and may help support memory and cognitive function.
Food Sources: Fish, soybeans and organ meats.
Sphingomyelin: A phospholipid that forms part of nerve cell membranes and the myelin sheath.
Food Sources: Eggs, dairy products and meat.
Sterols
Cholesterol: An essential sterol used to produce cell membranes, steroid hormones, bile acids and vitamin D.
Food Sources: Eggs, liver, shellfish and dairy products.
Phytosterols: Plant sterols that may help reduce cholesterol absorption in the intestine.
Food Sources: Nuts, seeds, legumes, vegetable oils and avocados.
Ergosterol: The primary sterol found in fungi and the precursor to vitamin D₂.
Food Sources: Mushrooms and yeast.
Vitamins
Vitamins are organic compounds required in small amounts to support growth, metabolism, immune function and normal physiological processes. They are classified as fat-soluble or water-soluble.
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed with dietary fat and can be stored in the liver and body fat.
Vitamin A (Retinoids & Provitamin A Carotenoids)
Vitamin A supports vision, immune function, growth, reproduction and healthy skin.
Retinol: The active form of vitamin A used directly by the body.
Food Sources: Liver, egg yolks, dairy products and cod liver oil.
Retinal: Required for normal vision, particularly in low-light conditions.
Food Sources: Animal foods containing vitamin A.
Retinoic Acid: Regulates gene expression, cell growth and development. Unlike other forms, it cannot be converted back into retinol.
Food Sources: Produced in the body from retinol.
Retinyl Esters: The storage form of vitamin A found in animal tissues.
Food Sources: Liver, butter and full-fat dairy products.
Beta-Carotene: A carotenoid that the body converts into vitamin A as needed. It also acts as an antioxidant.
Food Sources: Carrots, sweet potatoes, pumpkin, spinach and kale.
Alpha-Carotene: A carotenoid converted into vitamin A less efficiently than beta-carotene.
Food Sources: Carrots, pumpkin and winter squash.
Beta-Cryptoxanthin: A carotenoid with vitamin A activity that also has antioxidant properties.
Food Sources: Mandarins, oranges, papaya and red capsicum.
Vitamin D (Calciferols)
Vitamin D regulates calcium and phosphorus absorption and supports bone, muscle and immune function.
Vitamin D₂ (Ergocalciferol): Produced by fungi and yeast when exposed to ultraviolet light.
Food Sources: UV-exposed mushrooms and fortified foods.
Vitamin D₃ (Cholecalciferol): Produced in human skin following sun exposure and found naturally in animal foods.
Food Sources: Sunlight, salmon, sardines, egg yolks and liver.
Vitamin E (Tocopherols & Tocotrienols)
Vitamin E is a fat-soluble antioxidant that protects cell membranes from oxidative damage.
Alpha-Tocopherol: The primary active form used by the human body.
Food Sources: Almonds, sunflower seeds, wheat germ oil and hazelnuts.
Beta-Tocopherol: An antioxidant naturally found in plant foods.
Food Sources: Vegetable oils, nuts and seeds.
Gamma-Tocopherol: The most common form in many diets and an antioxidant.
Food Sources: Soybean oil, corn oil, walnuts and pecans.
Delta-Tocopherol: A naturally occurring antioxidant found in small amounts in plants.
Food Sources: Seeds, nuts and vegetable oils.
Alpha-Tocotrienol: An antioxidant that may support brain and nerve health.
Food Sources: Palm oil, rice bran oil and barley.
Beta-Tocotrienol: A less common form of vitamin E with antioxidant properties.
Food Sources: Cereals and grains.
Gamma-Tocotrienol: An antioxidant that may support cardiovascular and cellular health.
Food Sources: Rice bran, palm oil and annatto.
Delta-Tocotrienol: A tocotrienol with antioxidant activity.
Food Sources: Annatto, rice bran and palm oil.
Vitamin K (Quinones)
Vitamin K supports normal blood clotting and bone metabolism.
Vitamin K₁ (Phylloquinone): The primary form found in plants.
Food Sources: Kale, spinach, broccoli and other leafy green vegetables.
Vitamin K₂ (Menaquinones): Produced by bacteria and found in fermented and animal foods. Includes forms MK-4 to MK-13.
Food Sources: Natto, cheese, egg yolks, liver and fermented foods.
Vitamin K₃ (Menadione): A synthetic form that is not used as a dietary supplement for humans.
Food Sources: None.
Water-Soluble Vitamins
Water-soluble vitamins are not stored in large amounts and excess is generally excreted in urine.
Vitamin C
Ascorbic Acid: An antioxidant that supports collagen production, wound healing, immune function and iron absorption.
Food Sources: Citrus fruits, kiwifruit, strawberries, capsicum, broccoli and potatoes.
Vitamin B₁ (Thiamine)
Thiamine: Required for carbohydrate metabolism, nerve function and energy production.
Food Sources: Whole grains, pork, legumes, sunflower seeds and fortified cereals.
Vitamin B₂ (Riboflavin)
Riboflavin: Required for energy production and the metabolism of fats, proteins and carbohydrates.
Food Sources: Dairy products, eggs, almonds, mushrooms and liver.
Vitamin B₃ (Niacin)
Nicotinic Acid: Supports energy metabolism and DNA repair.
Food Sources: Meat, poultry, fish, peanuts and whole grains.
Nicotinamide (Niacinamide): A form of niacin used to produce cellular energy.
Food Sources: Meat, fish, eggs and fortified foods.
Vitamin B₅ (Pantothenic Acid)
Pantothenic Acid: Required to produce coenzyme A, which is involved in energy metabolism and fatty acid synthesis.
Food Sources: Chicken, mushrooms, avocados, eggs and whole grains.
Vitamin B₆
Pyridoxine: Supports amino acid metabolism, neurotransmitter production and immune function.
Food Sources: Poultry, bananas, potatoes and chickpeas.
Pyridoxal: An active form involved in enzyme reactions.
Food Sources: Animal foods.
Pyridoxamine: Another naturally occurring form involved in amino acid metabolism.
Food Sources: Meat and fish.
Vitamin B₇ (Biotin)
Biotin: Supports carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism and contributes to healthy skin and hair.
Food Sources: Egg yolks, liver, nuts, seeds and salmon.
Vitamin B₉ (Folate)
Folate: Required for DNA synthesis, red blood cell production and normal fetal development.
Food Sources: Leafy green vegetables, legumes, asparagus and avocado.
Folic Acid: The synthetic form of folate used in supplements and food fortification.
Food Sources: Fortified cereals and supplements.
Vitamin B₁₂ (Cobalamin)
Methylcobalamin: An active form required for nerve function and red blood cell production.
Food Sources: Meat, fish, dairy products and eggs.
Adenosylcobalamin: An active form involved in energy metabolism.
Food Sources: Animal foods.
Cyanocobalamin: A stable synthetic form commonly used in supplements and fortified foods.
Food Sources: Fortified foods and supplements.
Minerals
Minerals are inorganic elements required for structural, metabolic and regulatory functions. They are classified as major minerals, trace minerals and ultra-trace elements.
Major Minerals (Macrominerals)
Calcium: Builds bones and teeth, supports muscle contraction, nerve signalling and blood clotting.
Food Sources: Dairy products, sardines, salmon with bones, kale, bok choy and almonds.
Phosphorus: Forms bones and teeth, produces ATP for energy and is a component of DNA, RNA and cell membranes.
Food Sources: Meat, fish, dairy, eggs, legumes and nuts.
Magnesium: Required for over 300 enzyme reactions involved in muscle function, nerve signalling, energy production and protein synthesis.
Food Sources: Pumpkin seeds, almonds, spinach, legumes, dark chocolate and whole grains.
Sodium: Maintains fluid balance, nerve impulses and muscle contraction.
Food Sources: Table salt, seafood, dairy products and processed foods.
Potassium: Regulates fluid balance, muscle contraction, nerve function and heart rhythm.
Food Sources: Bananas, potatoes, avocados, beans, spinach and dried fruits.
Chloride: Maintains fluid balance and forms hydrochloric acid in the stomach for digestion.
Food Sources: Table salt, tomatoes, celery, olives and seaweed.
Sulfur: A component of sulfur-containing amino acids, vitamins and connective tissues.
Food Sources: Meat, eggs, fish, legumes, garlic, onions and cruciferous vegetables.
Trace Minerals
Iron: Forms haemoglobin and myoglobin for oxygen transport and supports energy production and immune function.
Food Sources: Red meat, liver, shellfish, legumes, spinach and fortified cereals.
Zinc: Supports immune function, wound healing, DNA synthesis, growth and reproduction.
Food Sources: Oysters, beef, pumpkin seeds, dairy products and legumes.
Copper: Supports iron metabolism, connective tissue formation, antioxidant enzymes and nervous system function.
Food Sources: Liver, shellfish, cocoa, nuts and seeds.
Manganese: Supports bone formation, antioxidant enzymes and carbohydrate metabolism.
Food Sources: Whole grains, nuts, tea and legumes.
Selenium: Forms antioxidant enzymes and supports thyroid hormone metabolism and immune function.
Food Sources: Brazil nuts, seafood, meat, eggs and whole grains.
Iodine: Required for the production of thyroid hormones that regulate metabolism and growth.
Food Sources: Seaweed, seafood, dairy products and iodised salt.
Chromium: Supports insulin function and normal carbohydrate metabolism.
Food Sources: Whole grains, broccoli, meat and brewer’s yeast.
Molybdenum: Forms enzymes involved in sulfur amino acid metabolism and sulfite detoxification.
Food Sources: Legumes, grains, nuts and dairy products.
Fluoride: Strengthens tooth enamel and supports bone mineralisation.
Food Sources: Fluoridated water, tea and seafood.
Cobalt: A component of vitamin B₁₂ required for red blood cell formation and nervous system function.
Food Sources: Meat, fish, dairy products and eggs.
Ultra-Trace Elements
Boron: May help support bone health and the metabolism of calcium, magnesium and vitamin D.
Food Sources: Fruits, nuts, legumes and leafy vegetables.
Silicon: May support connective tissue, skin, hair and bone health.
Food Sources: Whole grains, oats, green beans and bananas.
Nickel: May contribute to enzyme activity, although its role in humans is not fully understood.
Food Sources: Legumes, nuts and whole grains.
Vanadium: May support normal glucose and lipid metabolism.
Food Sources: Mushrooms, shellfish, grains and black pepper.
Lithium: Naturally present in small amounts and may support neurological function.
Food Sources: Drinking water, potatoes, grains and some vegetables.
Water
Water is the most abundant nutrient in the human body. It acts as a solvent, transports nutrients and waste products, regulates body temperature, lubricates joints and supports nearly every biochemical reaction.
Water: Essential for hydration, circulation, digestion, temperature regulation and cellular function.
Food Sources: Drinking water, beverages, fruits, vegetables and other water-rich foods.
2. Plant Bioactive Compounds
Plant bioactive compounds are naturally occurring chemicals produced by plants that are not considered essential nutrients for humans but may contribute to health when consumed as part of a varied diet. In plants, they protect against insects, pathogens and environmental stress while contributing to colour, flavour and aroma.
Thousands of plant bioactive compounds have been identified and are classified into several major groups based on their chemical structure.
Polyphenols
Polyphenols are one of the largest and most diverse groups of plant compounds. They are responsible for many of the colours, flavours and protective properties found in fruits, vegetables, herbs, spices, tea, coffee and cocoa. Many polyphenols have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
Flavonoids
Flavonoids are the largest family of polyphenols. They are plant pigments that contribute to the red, blue, purple and yellow colours of many fruits, vegetables and flowers.
Flavonols
Quercetin: An antioxidant and anti-inflammatory flavonoid that may help protect cells from oxidative stress, support cardiovascular health, contribute to immune function and help reduce seasonal allergy symptoms.
Food Sources: Onions, apples, capers, kale, broccoli, berries and tea.
Kaempferol: An antioxidant flavonoid that may help reduce inflammation, protect cells from oxidative damage and support heart and brain health.
Food Sources: Kale, spinach, broccoli, cabbage, beans and tea.
Myricetin: An antioxidant flavonoid that may help support healthy blood sugar regulation, brain function and protect cells from oxidative stress.
Food Sources: Berries, grapes, walnuts, tea and red wine.
Flavones
Apigenin: An antioxidant flavonoid that may help support healthy inflammatory responses, brain function and restful sleep.
Food Sources: Parsley, celery, chamomile and oregano.
Luteolin: An antioxidant flavonoid that may help reduce inflammation, protect nerve cells and support cognitive health.
Food Sources: Celery, parsley, thyme, oregano and green peppers.
Flavanones
Hesperidin: An antioxidant flavonoid that may help support healthy circulation, strengthen blood vessels and reduce inflammation.
Food Sources: Oranges, mandarins, lemons and other citrus fruits.
Naringenin: An antioxidant flavonoid that may help support liver health, healthy metabolism and normal inflammatory responses.
Food Sources: Grapefruit, oranges and tomatoes.
Eriocitrin: An antioxidant flavonoid that may help protect cells from oxidative stress and support cardiovascular health.
Food Sources: Lemons and limes.
Flavan-3-ols (Catechins)
Catechin: An antioxidant flavonoid that may help support cardiovascular health and protect cells from oxidative damage.
Food Sources: Tea, cocoa, apples and grapes.
Epicatechin: An antioxidant flavonoid that may help support healthy blood flow, exercise performance and cardiovascular function.
Food Sources: Dark chocolate, cocoa, apples and tea.
EGCG (Epigallocatechin Gallate): An antioxidant catechin that may help reduce inflammation, support cardiovascular health, healthy metabolism and brain function.
Food Sources: Green tea, matcha and smaller amounts in black tea.
Anthocyanidins
Anthocyanidins are pigments responsible for the red, blue and purple colours of many fruits and vegetables.
Cyanidin: An antioxidant pigment that may help support cardiovascular health and protect cells from oxidative stress.
Food Sources: Blackberries, cherries, black rice and red cabbage.
Delphinidin: An antioxidant pigment that may help support brain health and healthy inflammatory responses.
Food Sources: Blueberries, blackcurrants, eggplant and concord grapes.
Malvidin: An antioxidant pigment that may help support cardiovascular health and healthy ageing.
Food Sources: Red grapes, blueberries and blackberries.
Pelargonidin: An antioxidant pigment that may help protect cells from oxidative stress and support heart health.
Food Sources: Strawberries, raspberries and red radishes.
Isoflavones
Isoflavones are phytoestrogens that have a chemical structure similar to human oestrogen.
Genistein: A phytoestrogen with antioxidant properties that may help support bone health, cardiovascular health and hormonal balance.
Food Sources: Soybeans, tofu, tempeh and edamame.
Daidzein: A phytoestrogen with antioxidant properties that may help support menopausal health and bone health.
Food Sources: Soybeans, miso and soy milk.
Glycitein: A phytoestrogen with antioxidant properties that may help support antioxidant defences and hormonal health.
Food Sources: Soybeans and soy products.
Phenolic Acids
Phenolic acids are simpler polyphenols found throughout the plant kingdom.
Hydroxybenzoic Acids
Gallic Acid: An antioxidant phenolic acid that may help protect cells from oxidative stress and support immune health.
Food Sources: Tea, berries, grapes, walnuts and pomegranates.
Ellagic Acid: An antioxidant phenolic acid that may help support cellular health and healthy inflammatory responses.
Food Sources: Pomegranates, raspberries, strawberries and walnuts.
Hydroxycinnamic Acids
Caffeic Acid: An antioxidant phenolic acid that may help support liver health and protect cells from oxidative stress.
Food Sources: Coffee, herbs, apples and pears.
Ferulic Acid: An antioxidant phenolic acid that may help protect skin from oxidative damage and support cardiovascular health.
Food Sources: Whole grains, rice bran, oats and corn.
p-Coumaric Acid: An antioxidant phenolic acid that may help protect cells and support healthy inflammatory responses.
Food Sources: Tomatoes, garlic, peanuts and carrots.
Sinapic Acid: An antioxidant phenolic acid that may help support brain health and protect against oxidative stress.
Food Sources: Mustard seeds, broccoli, cauliflower and cereals.
Stilbenes
Stilbenes are plant compounds produced in response to injury, infection or environmental stress.
Resveratrol: An antioxidant stilbene that may help support cardiovascular health, healthy ageing and protection against oxidative stress.
Food Sources: Red grapes, blueberries, cranberries and peanuts.
Pterostilbene: An antioxidant stilbene that may help support brain health, healthy blood sugar regulation and cardiovascular function.
Food Sources: Blueberries and grapes.
Lignans
Lignans are polyphenols that are converted by gut bacteria into compounds with weak estrogen-like activity.
Secoisolariciresinol: A phytoestrogen that may help support heart health, digestive health and hormonal balance.
Food Sources: Flaxseed, sesame seeds and whole grains.
Matairesinol: A phytoestrogen that may help support cardiovascular health and antioxidant defences.
Food Sources: Whole grains, berries and flaxseed.
Tannins
Tannins are polyphenols responsible for the dry, astringent sensation produced by foods such as tea and unripe fruit.
Hydrolysable Tannins
Hydrolysable Tannins: Antioxidant polyphenols that may help protect cells from oxidative stress.
Food Sources: Pomegranates, walnuts and berries.
Condensed Tannins (Proanthocyanidins)
Proanthocyanidins: Antioxidant polyphenols that may help support cardiovascular health, oral health and healthy circulation.
Food Sources: Cocoa, grapes, cranberries, apples and cinnamon.
Carotenoids
Carotenoids are fat-soluble pigments responsible for the yellow, orange and red colours of many fruits and vegetables. Some can be converted into vitamin A, while others have different biological functions.
Provitamin A Carotenoids
Beta-Carotene: A carotenoid that the body converts into vitamin A. It may help support vision, immune function, skin health and protect cells from oxidative stress.
Food Sources: Carrots, sweet potatoes, pumpkin, spinach, kale and mangoes.
Alpha-Carotene: A carotenoid that can also be converted into vitamin A and may help support eye health and immune function.
Food Sources: Carrots, pumpkin and winter squash.
Beta-Cryptoxanthin: A carotenoid with vitamin A activity that may help support bone health, immune function and healthy inflammatory responses.
Food Sources: Mandarins, oranges, papaya, persimmons and red capsicum.
Non-Provitamin A Carotenoids
Lycopene: An antioxidant carotenoid that may help support cardiovascular health, prostate health and protect cells from oxidative stress.
Food Sources: Tomatoes, watermelon, pink grapefruit, guava and papaya.
Lutein: A carotenoid that accumulates in the retina and may help support eye health and protect against blue light and oxidative damage.
Food Sources: Spinach, kale, silverbeet, peas and egg yolks.
Zeaxanthin: A carotenoid that works alongside lutein to help protect the retina and support healthy vision.
Food Sources: Corn, orange capsicum, spinach, kale and egg yolks.
Astaxanthin: A red carotenoid with antioxidant properties that may help support skin, eye, muscle and cardiovascular health.
Food Sources: Salmon, trout, krill, shrimp and microalgae.
Fucoxanthin: A brown carotenoid that may help support healthy metabolism and protect cells from oxidative stress.
Food Sources: Brown seaweeds such as wakame, kombu and hijiki.
Glucosinolates & Isothiocyanates
Glucosinolates are sulfur-containing compounds found mainly in cruciferous vegetables. When plant cells are cut, crushed or chewed, an enzyme called myrosinase converts glucosinolates into biologically active compounds called isothiocyanates.
Glucosinolates
Glucoraphanin: The precursor to sulforaphane that may help support the body’s natural antioxidant and detoxification systems.
Food Sources: Broccoli, broccoli sprouts and kale.
Sinigrin: A glucosinolate that forms allyl isothiocyanate when plant tissue is damaged.
Food Sources: Mustard seeds, horseradish, Brussels sprouts and cabbage.
Glucobrassicin: A glucosinolate that breaks down into indole compounds which may support normal hormone metabolism.
Food Sources: Broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower and Brussels sprouts.
Isothiocyanates
Sulforaphane: A sulfur-containing compound that may help activate the body’s natural antioxidant defences, support detoxification pathways and protect cells from oxidative stress.
Food Sources: Broccoli sprouts, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, kale and cabbage.
Allyl Isothiocyanate: A pungent compound that may help support antimicrobial defence and healthy inflammatory responses.
Food Sources: Mustard, horseradish and wasabi.
Phenethyl Isothiocyanate (PEITC): A sulfur-containing compound that may help support detoxification enzymes and cellular protection.
Food Sources: Watercress and some cruciferous vegetables.
Terpenes
Terpenes are aromatic compounds responsible for the characteristic scents and flavours of many herbs, spices, fruits and conifers.
Limonene: A citrus terpene that may help support digestion, healthy inflammatory responses and antioxidant defence.
Food Sources: Orange, lemon and lime peel.
Menthol: A cooling terpene that may help soothe the airways, support digestion and provide a cooling sensation.
Food Sources: Peppermint and spearmint.
Alpha-Pinene: A pine-scented terpene that may help support respiratory health and healthy inflammatory responses.
Food Sources: Pine needles, rosemary, basil and dill.
Linalool: A floral terpene that may help promote relaxation and support healthy sleep.
Food Sources: Lavender, coriander, basil and citrus peel.
Thymol: A terpene with antimicrobial and antioxidant properties that may help support oral and respiratory health.
Food Sources: Thyme and oregano.
Carvacrol: A terpene with antimicrobial and antioxidant properties that may help support digestive and immune health.
Food Sources: Oregano and thyme.
Alkaloids
Alkaloids are nitrogen-containing compounds that often protect plants against insects and herbivores. Many also produce noticeable effects in humans.
Caffeine: A natural stimulant that may improve alertness, concentration and reduce feelings of fatigue.
Food Sources: Coffee, tea, cacao, guarana and yerba mate.
Theobromine: A mild stimulant that may help support cardiovascular function and promote smooth muscle relaxation.
Food Sources: Cocoa, dark chocolate and cacao nibs.
Capsaicin: The compound responsible for the heat in chilli peppers. It may help support healthy metabolism and pain regulation.
Food Sources: Chilli peppers and cayenne pepper.
Piperine: The pungent compound in black pepper that may enhance the absorption of certain nutrients and plant compounds.
Food Sources: Black pepper and long pepper.
Solanine: A natural glycoalkaloid that protects plants from pests. High amounts may be toxic to humans.
Food Sources: Green potatoes, potato sprouts and unripe tomatoes.
Saponins
Saponins are plant compounds that form a soap-like foam when mixed with water.
Soyasaponins: Saponins that may help support cholesterol metabolism and healthy inflammatory responses.
Food Sources: Soybeans and soy products.
Ginsenosides: The primary active compounds in ginseng that may help support energy, cognitive function and resistance to physical and mental stress.
Food Sources: Asian and American ginseng.
Quillaja Saponins: Natural foaming compounds commonly used as food emulsifiers.
Food Sources: Soapbark tree (Quillaja saponaria).
Phytosterols
Phytosterols are plant sterols with a structure similar to cholesterol.
Beta-Sitosterol: May help reduce cholesterol absorption and support prostate health.
Food Sources: Nuts, seeds, avocados and vegetable oils.
Campesterol: May help reduce intestinal cholesterol absorption.
Food Sources: Canola oil, nuts, seeds and legumes.
Stigmasterol: A phytosterol that may help support healthy cholesterol metabolism.
Food Sources: Soybeans, legumes, nuts and vegetable oils.
Organosulfur Compounds
Organosulfur compounds are responsible for the distinctive aroma and flavour of garlic, onions and related vegetables.
Allicin: An antioxidant and antimicrobial compound that may help support cardiovascular health, immune function and healthy inflammatory responses.
Food Sources: Fresh crushed garlic.
Diallyl Sulfide: A sulfur compound that may help support liver detoxification and antioxidant defence.
Food Sources: Garlic.
Diallyl Disulfide: A sulfur compound that may help support cardiovascular health and healthy inflammatory responses.
Food Sources: Garlic.
S-Allyl Cysteine: A stable sulfur compound that may help support cardiovascular health and antioxidant defence.
Food Sources: Aged garlic.
Phytoestrogens
Phytoestrogens are plant compounds with a chemical structure similar to human oestrogen. The major phytoestrogen groups include isoflavones and lignans, which were described earlier in this chapter, along with the smaller coumestans family.
Coumestrol: A phytoestrogen that may help support bone health and hormonal balance.
Food Sources: Alfalfa sprouts, clover sprouts and split peas.
Other Plant Bioactives
These plant compounds do not belong to the major groups above but are important contributors to food chemistry and nutrition.
Betalains: Pigments with antioxidant properties that may help protect cells from oxidative stress.
Food Sources: Beetroot, prickly pear and Swiss chard.
Chlorophyll: The green pigment used in photosynthesis that may help support antioxidant activity.
Food Sources: Spinach, kale, parsley and other leafy green vegetables.
Curcuminoids: Yellow polyphenolic pigments with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that may help support joint health and healthy inflammatory responses.
Food Sources: Turmeric.
Gingerols: Pungent compounds with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that may help support digestion and reduce nausea.
Food Sources: Fresh ginger.
Rosmarinic Acid: An antioxidant polyphenol that may help support healthy inflammatory responses and seasonal allergy symptoms.
Food Sources: Rosemary, basil, sage, mint and lemon balm.
Iridoids: Bitter plant compounds that may help support healthy inflammatory responses and liver health.
Food Sources: Olives, cornelian cherries and noni fruit.
Coumarins: Aromatic compounds that contribute to the scent of some plants. Some may help support healthy circulation, while excessive intake of certain coumarins may affect liver health.
Food Sources: Cinnamon (especially Cassia cinnamon), tonka beans, celery and parsley.
3. Animal Bioactive Compounds
Animal bioactive compounds are naturally occurring substances found in animal-derived foods that are not classified as essential nutrients but may support normal physiological functions and overall health. Many are involved in energy metabolism, muscle function, brain health, antioxidant defence and cellular communication.
Unlike vitamins and minerals, these compounds are found primarily in meat, fish, eggs and dairy products, although some are also produced naturally within the human body.
Amino Acid Derivatives
These compounds are produced from amino acids and participate in energy production, nerve signalling, muscle function and antioxidant defence.
Creatine: Supports rapid energy production in muscles and the brain, helping improve strength, power and high-intensity exercise performance.
Food Sources: Beef, pork, fish and poultry.
Creatinine: A waste product formed from creatine metabolism and commonly used as a marker of kidney function.
Food Sources: Produced naturally in the body.
Carnitine (L-Carnitine): Transports fatty acids into mitochondria where they are converted into energy and may support exercise performance.
Food Sources: Red meat, lamb, dairy products and fish.
Carnosine: An antioxidant dipeptide that may help protect muscles from oxidative stress and reduce acid buildup during exercise.
Food Sources: Beef, chicken, pork and fish.
Anserine: An antioxidant dipeptide that may help protect muscles and nerves from oxidative damage.
Food Sources: Chicken, turkey and fish.
Taurine: Supports bile acid production, heart function, muscle contraction, nervous system development and eye health.
Food Sources: Seafood, meat and dairy products.
Glutathione: One of the body’s major antioxidants that helps protect cells from oxidative stress and supports detoxification.
Food Sources: Fresh meat, liver, asparagus, avocado and spinach.
Peptides & Proteins
These naturally occurring proteins and peptides perform structural, immune and signalling functions throughout the body.
Collagen: The primary structural protein in skin, bones, cartilage, tendons and ligaments that supports connective tissue strength and elasticity.
Food Sources: Skin, connective tissue, bone broth and gelatin.
Gelatin: A partially broken-down form of collagen that supports connective tissue and digestive health.
Food Sources: Bone broth and gelatin products.
Elastin: A structural protein that provides elasticity to skin, blood vessels and connective tissues.
Food Sources: Connective tissues in meat.
Lactoferrin: An iron-binding protein with antimicrobial properties that may support immune function.
Food Sources: Colostrum and milk.
Casein: The major protein in milk that provides a slow release of amino acids.
Food Sources: Milk, cheese and yoghurt.
Whey Protein: A rapidly digested protein rich in essential amino acids that supports muscle protein synthesis.
Food Sources: Milk and dairy products.
Animal Lipids
Animal lipids include essential fatty acids and specialised phospholipids that contribute to cell structure and normal body function.
Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA): A naturally occurring fatty acid that may support healthy body composition and immune function.
Food Sources: Beef, lamb and dairy products.
Omega-3 EPA: Supports cardiovascular health, brain function and healthy inflammatory responses.
Food Sources: Salmon, sardines, mackerel and anchovies.
Omega-3 DHA: A major structural fat in the brain and retina that supports cognitive function and vision.
Food Sources: Oily fish, fish oil and algae.
Sphingomyelin: A phospholipid that forms part of nerve cell membranes and the protective myelin sheath.
Food Sources: Eggs, dairy products and meat.
Cholesterol & Steroid Precursors
These compounds serve as building blocks for hormones, vitamin D and bile acids.
Cholesterol: An essential component of cell membranes and the precursor for steroid hormones, vitamin D and bile acids.
Food Sources: Eggs, liver, shellfish and dairy products.
7-Dehydrocholesterol: A cholesterol derivative converted into vitamin D₃ when skin is exposed to sunlight.
Food Sources: Produced naturally in human skin.
Coenzymes & Cellular Compounds
These compounds participate in cellular energy production and antioxidant defence.
Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10): Supports energy production within mitochondria and acts as an antioxidant.
Food Sources: Heart, liver, beef, pork, sardines and mackerel.
Alpha-Lipoic Acid: An antioxidant involved in energy metabolism that also helps regenerate other antioxidants.
Food Sources: Organ meats, spinach and broccoli.
Pigments
Pigments contribute to the colour of animal tissues and often have biological functions.
Heme: An iron-containing compound that carries oxygen in haemoglobin and myoglobin.
Food Sources: Red meat, liver and blood products.
Myoglobin: The oxygen-storage protein responsible for the red colour of muscle.
Food Sources: Beef, lamb and other red meats.
Astaxanthin: A red carotenoid obtained through the diet that gives salmon, trout and crustaceans their pink-red colour and acts as an antioxidant.
Food Sources: Salmon, trout, shrimp, krill and lobster.
Bioactive Hormones & Signalling Molecules
Small quantities of naturally occurring signalling compounds are present in some animal foods.
Melatonin: A hormone that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and also functions as an antioxidant.
Food Sources: Eggs, fish and small amounts in milk.
IGF-1 (Insulin-like Growth Factor-1): A naturally occurring growth factor involved in growth and tissue repair.
Food Sources: Milk and colostrum.
Transforming Growth Factors (TGFs): Signalling proteins involved in cell growth, immune regulation and tissue repair.
Food Sources: Colostrum and milk.
Other Animal Bioactive Compounds
Choline: Required for cell membranes, acetylcholine production and normal liver function.
Food Sources: Egg yolks, liver, beef, chicken and fish.
Inositol: Supports cell signalling and nervous system function.
Food Sources: Meat, eggs and also found in plant foods.
Sialic Acid: A carbohydrate involved in brain development, immune function and cell communication.
Food Sources: Milk, eggs and organ meats.
Nucleotides: Building blocks of DNA and RNA that support cell growth and repair.
Food Sources: Meat, fish, organ meats and milk.
4. Bee Compounds
Bee products contain a unique combination of nutrients and bioactive compounds produced by honey bees from plant nectar, pollen, tree resins and bee secretions. These compounds contribute to the nutritional value, flavour and biological properties of honey, bee pollen, bee bread, propolis and royal jelly.
Honey Compounds
Honey is primarily composed of carbohydrates but also contains enzymes, organic acids, amino acids, vitamins, minerals and hundreds of plant-derived bioactive compounds.
Carbohydrates
Fructose: The predominant sugar in honey, providing sweetness and a readily available source of energy.
Glucose: A simple sugar that provides immediate energy and influences honey crystallisation.
Sucrose: Present naturally in small amounts as an intermediate during honey production.
Maltose: A disaccharide formed during nectar processing.
Oligosaccharides: Complex carbohydrates that may support beneficial gut bacteria.
Enzymes
Honey enzymes are added primarily by bees during nectar processing.
Invertase (Sucrase): Converts sucrose into glucose and fructose during honey ripening.
Diastase (Amylase): Breaks down starch into smaller sugars.
Glucose Oxidase: Produces hydrogen peroxide when honey is diluted, contributing to honey’s antimicrobial activity.
Catalase: Breaks down hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.
Acid Phosphatase: Participates in phosphate metabolism.
Organic Acids
Organic acids contribute to honey’s acidity, flavour and stability.
Gluconic Acid: The most abundant organic acid in honey, produced by glucose oxidase.
Acetic Acid: Contributes to flavour and acidity.
Citric Acid: Supports acidity and flavour.
Malic Acid: Contributes to flavour.
Succinic Acid: A naturally occurring organic acid involved in cellular metabolism.
Polyphenols
These plant-derived compounds vary depending on floral source.
Quercetin: An antioxidant flavonoid that may help protect cells from oxidative stress and support cardiovascular health.
Kaempferol: An antioxidant flavonoid that may support healthy inflammatory responses.
Galangin: A flavonoid with antioxidant and antimicrobial properties.
Pinocembrin: A flavonoid with antioxidant properties that may support brain health.
Chrysin: A flavonoid that may support antioxidant defence.
Caffeic Acid: An antioxidant phenolic acid that may help protect cells from oxidative stress.
Ferulic Acid: An antioxidant phenolic acid that may support cardiovascular health.
Bee Pollen
Bee pollen consists of flower pollen pellets collected by bees and mixed with nectar and bee secretions. It contains proteins, amino acids, lipids, vitamins, minerals and plant bioactive compounds.
Proteins & Amino Acids
Essential Amino Acids: Support growth, tissue repair and protein synthesis.
Lipids
Essential Fatty Acids: Contribute to normal cell membrane structure and function.
Vitamins
B Vitamins: Support energy metabolism and nervous system function.
Vitamin C: Supports collagen production and antioxidant defence.
Vitamin E: Protects cell membranes from oxidative stress.
Minerals
Potassium, Magnesium, Calcium, Iron, Zinc and Selenium: Support enzyme function, bone health, oxygen transport and immune function.
Polyphenols
Quercetin: An antioxidant flavonoid that may help support healthy inflammatory responses.
Rutin: An antioxidant flavonoid that may support blood vessel health.
Kaempferol:An antioxidant flavonoid that may help protect cells from oxidative stress.
Bee Bread
Bee bread is fermented bee pollen stored within the hive. Natural fermentation increases the availability of nutrients and introduces beneficial microorganisms.
Lactic Acid
Lactic Acid: Produced during fermentation and contributes to preservation and acidity.
Probiotics
Lactic Acid Bacteria: Beneficial bacteria that contribute to fermentation and may support gut health.
Enzymes
Digestive Enzymes: Contribute to the breakdown of pollen during fermentation.
Royal Jelly
Royal jelly is a nutrient-rich secretion produced by worker bees and fed to all larvae during early development and exclusively to queen bees throughout life.
Major Royal Jelly Proteins
MRJP1: The most abundant royal jelly protein, providing nutritional and biological functions.
MRJP2–MRJP9: A family of proteins that contribute to the nutritional composition of royal jelly.
Fatty Acids
10-HDA (10-Hydroxy-2-Decenoic Acid): A unique fatty acid found almost exclusively in royal jelly that may support immune function and healthy inflammatory responses.
Sebacic Acid: A naturally occurring dicarboxylic acid present in small amounts.
Vitamins
Pantothenic Acid (Vitamin B₅): Supports energy metabolism and coenzyme A production.
Biotin: Supports fat and carbohydrate metabolism.
Propolis
Propolis is a resinous material produced by bees from plant resins, wax and bee enzymes. Bees use it to seal and disinfect the hive.
Flavonoids
Pinocembrin: An antioxidant flavonoid with antimicrobial properties.
Galangin: An antioxidant flavonoid that may support healthy inflammatory responses.
Chrysin: An antioxidant flavonoid naturally abundant in propolis.
Pinobanksin: A flavonoid with antioxidant activity.
Phenolic Acids
Caffeic Acid: An antioxidant phenolic acid found naturally in propolis.
Caffeic Acid Phenethyl Ester (CAPE): A bioactive derivative of caffeic acid that may support healthy inflammatory responses.
Ferulic Acid: An antioxidant phenolic acid.
Terpenes
Terpenes: Aromatic compounds that contribute to the fragrance and antimicrobial properties of propolis.
Beeswax
Beeswax is produced by worker bees to construct honeycomb. Although not typically consumed as a nutrient, it contains naturally occurring lipids and aromatic compounds.
Wax Esters: Structural lipids that provide strength and stability to the honeycomb.
Long-Chain Fatty Acids
Cerotic Acid: A saturated fatty acid naturally found in beeswax.
Palmitic Acid: A saturated fatty acid contributing to wax structure.
Hydrocarbons
Long-Chain Hydrocarbons: Contribute to the protective properties of beeswax.
Bee Venom
Bee venom is a defensive secretion composed of peptides, enzymes and small signalling molecules.
Peptides
Melittin: The principal peptide in bee venom that contributes to its biological activity.
Apamin: A neuroactive peptide that interacts with nerve cells.
Adolapin: A peptide that may contribute to healthy inflammatory responses.
Enzymes
Phospholipase A₂: The major enzyme in bee venom responsible for many of its biological effects.
Hyaluronidase: An enzyme that increases tissue permeability.
5. Mushroom Compounds
Mushrooms contain a unique range of bioactive compounds that differ from those found in plants and animals. These compounds contribute to the structure of fungal cells, energy metabolism and defence against environmental stress. Many have been investigated for their potential roles in immune function, antioxidant defence and neurological health.
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are among the most abundant bioactive compounds in edible and medicinal mushrooms.
Beta-Glucans
Beta-(1→3),(1→6)-Glucans: Soluble fibres that may support normal immune function by interacting with immune cells such as macrophages and natural killer cells.
Food Sources: Shiitake, maitake, oyster mushrooms, lion’s mane and reishi.
Alpha-Glucans
Alpha-Glucans: Storage carbohydrates that provide energy for fungal cells.
Food Sources: Most edible mushrooms.
Chitin
Chitin: An insoluble structural fibre that forms the fungal cell wall and contributes to dietary fibre intake.
Food Sources: All mushrooms.
Antioxidants
Mushrooms are one of the richest dietary sources of several unique antioxidants.
Ergothioneine: A sulfur-containing antioxidant that accumulates in tissues exposed to oxidative stress and may help protect cells from free radical damage.
Food Sources: King oyster, oyster, shiitake, maitake and porcini mushrooms.
Glutathione: One of the body’s major antioxidants that helps protect cells from oxidative stress and supports detoxification.
Food Sources: Fresh mushrooms, particularly porcini and button mushrooms.
Sterols
Fungi contain sterols instead of the cholesterol found in animals.
Ergosterol: The primary fungal sterol and the precursor to vitamin D₂ when exposed to ultraviolet light.
Food Sources: Mushrooms and yeast.
Vitamin D₂ (Ergocalciferol): Produced when ergosterol is exposed to ultraviolet light.
Food Sources: UV-exposed mushrooms.
Terpenes
Terpenes contribute to the aroma and biological activity of many medicinal mushrooms.
Triterpenes
Ganoderic Acids: Bitter triterpenes that may support healthy inflammatory responses and liver function.
Food Sources: Reishi mushrooms.
Lucidenic Acids: Triterpenes with antioxidant properties.
Food Sources: Reishi mushrooms.
Nucleosides
Nucleosides participate in cellular signalling and energy metabolism.
Cordycepin: A nucleoside analogue that may support healthy inflammatory responses and normal cellular function.
Food Sources: Cordyceps mushrooms.
Adenosine: A naturally occurring nucleoside involved in cellular energy transfer and signalling.
Food Sources: Cordyceps and other mushrooms.
Protein-Derived Compounds
Certain mushrooms produce unique proteins that contribute to their biological activity.
Lectins
Mushroom Lectins: Carbohydrate-binding proteins that may support immune function and cell signalling.
Food Sources: Shiitake, oyster and other edible mushrooms.
Fungal Immunomodulatory Proteins (FIPs)
Fungal Immunomodulatory Proteins (FIPs): Proteins that may help regulate normal immune responses.
Food Sources: Reishi, enoki and other medicinal mushrooms.
Lion’s Mane Compounds
Lion’s mane contains unique compounds that have attracted interest for their effects on the nervous system.
Hericenones: Aromatic compounds that may support nerve growth factor (NGF) production and normal cognitive function.
Food Sources: Lion’s mane.
Erinacines: Diterpenes that may support nerve growth factor synthesis and neurological health.
Food Sources: Lion’s mane mycelium.
Pigments
Mushrooms produce pigments that protect against environmental stress.
Melanin: A protective pigment that helps shield fungal cells from ultraviolet radiation and oxidative damage.
Food Sources: Black trumpet, wood ear and other dark-coloured mushrooms.
Organic Acids
Organic acids contribute to mushroom flavour and metabolism.
Oxalic Acid: A naturally occurring organic acid found in small amounts in some mushrooms.
Food Sources: Various edible mushrooms.
Malic Acid: Contributes to flavour and cellular metabolism.
Food Sources: Various edible mushrooms.
Citric Acid: Participates in energy metabolism.
Food Sources: Various edible mushrooms.
Volatile Aromatic Compounds
These compounds are responsible for the characteristic aroma of mushrooms.
1-Octen-3-ol: Often called the “mushroom alcohol,” this volatile compound produces the characteristic earthy aroma of fresh mushrooms.
Food Sources: Most edible mushrooms.
Benzaldehyde: An aromatic compound contributing almond-like notes to some mushroom species.
Food Sources: Various mushrooms.
Other Mushroom Bioactive Compounds
Lovastatin: A naturally occurring compound that inhibits cholesterol synthesis.
Food Sources: Oyster mushrooms.
Trehalose: A naturally occurring sugar that helps protect fungal cells from dehydration and environmental stress.
Food Sources: Most edible mushrooms.
Mannitol: A naturally occurring sugar alcohol used by mushrooms for energy storage and osmotic regulation.
Food Sources: Button mushrooms, porcini and shiitake.
6. Gut & Functional Compounds
Gut and functional compounds support digestion, nutrient absorption and the balance of the gut microbiome. Some are naturally present in foods, while others are produced during digestion or by beneficial microorganisms living in the digestive tract.
Probiotics
Probiotics are live microorganisms that, when consumed in adequate amounts, may provide health benefits by supporting a balanced gut microbiome.
Lactobacillus: A group of beneficial bacteria that may support digestion, lactose metabolism and healthy immune function.
Food Sources: Yoghurt, kefir, sauerkraut, kimchi and other fermented foods.
Bifidobacterium: Beneficial bacteria that ferment dietary fibre to produce short-chain fatty acids and support intestinal health.
Food Sources: Fermented dairy products and probiotic supplements.
Saccharomyces boulardii: A beneficial yeast that may help support digestive health and restore microbial balance.
Food Sources: Dietary supplements.
Prebiotics
Prebiotics are non-digestible compounds that selectively nourish beneficial microorganisms in the large intestine.
Inulin: A soluble fibre that promotes the growth of beneficial gut bacteria and supports bowel health.
Food Sources: Chicory root, Jerusalem artichokes, garlic, onions and asparagus.
Fructooligosaccharides (FOS): Prebiotic carbohydrates that stimulate beneficial bacteria such as Bifidobacterium.
Food Sources: Garlic, onions, bananas and asparagus.
Galactooligosaccharides (GOS): Prebiotic carbohydrates that help support a healthy gut microbiome.
Food Sources: Human milk, legumes and dairy products.
Xylooligosaccharides (XOS): Prebiotic fibres that may support beneficial gut bacteria even at relatively low intakes.
Food Sources: Bamboo shoots, fruits, vegetables and whole grains.
Arabinoxylans: Complex fibres that may support gut bacteria and short-chain fatty acid production.
Food Sources: Wheat bran, rye, oats and barley.
Postbiotics
Postbiotics are beneficial compounds produced by microorganisms during fermentation or released when microbial cells break down.
Short-Chain Fatty Acids (SCFAs): Fermentation products that nourish intestinal cells and support gut barrier function.
Food Sources: Produced in the colon through fibre fermentation.
Peptidoglycans: Components of bacterial cell walls that interact with the immune system.
Food Sources: Produced by beneficial bacteria.
Exopolysaccharides: Complex carbohydrates produced by some beneficial bacteria that may support gut and immune health.
Food Sources: Fermented foods.
Synbiotics
Synbiotics combine probiotics and prebiotics to support the survival and activity of beneficial microorganisms.
Synbiotics: Combinations of live beneficial microbes and the fibres that nourish them.
Food Sources: Some fermented foods and specially formulated functional foods.
Dietary Fibre
Dietary fibre consists of carbohydrates that resist digestion in the small intestine and reach the large intestine.
Soluble Fibre
Pectin: Forms a gel in water and may help support healthy cholesterol and blood sugar levels.
Food Sources: Apples, citrus fruits, berries and plums.
Beta-Glucans: Soluble fibres that may help support healthy cholesterol levels and normal immune function.
Food Sources: Oats, barley and mushrooms.
Psyllium: A gel-forming soluble fibre that supports bowel regularity and healthy cholesterol levels.
Food Sources: Psyllium husks.
Gums: Soluble fibres used by plants for storage and structure.
Food Sources: Guar beans and acacia.
Insoluble Fibre
Cellulose: Adds bulk to stool and supports regular bowel movements.
Food Sources: Vegetables, fruits, legumes and whole grains.
Hemicellulose: Supports digestive health and contributes to stool bulk.
Food Sources: Whole grains, vegetables and legumes.
Lignin: A structural plant compound that contributes to dietary fibre but is not a carbohydrate.
Food Sources: Flaxseed, vegetables and whole grains.
Resistant Starch
Resistant starch escapes digestion in the small intestine and is fermented by gut bacteria in the large intestine.
RS1: Physically inaccessible starch trapped within intact plant cells.
Food Sources: Whole grains, seeds and legumes.
RS2: Naturally resistant starch granules.
Food Sources: Raw potatoes, green bananas and some legumes.
RS3: Retrograded starch formed after cooking and cooling starchy foods.
Food Sources: Cooked and cooled potatoes, rice and pasta.
RS4: Chemically modified resistant starch used in some processed foods.
Food Sources: Certain processed food products.
RS5: Resistant starch formed when starch binds with fats.
Food Sources: Some cooked starches prepared with fats.
Short-Chain Fatty Acids (SCFAs)
Short-chain fatty acids are produced when beneficial bacteria ferment dietary fibre.
Acetate: The most abundant short-chain fatty acid, used throughout the body as an energy source.
Food Sources: Produced by gut bacteria.
Propionate: May support normal glucose metabolism and is primarily utilised by the liver.
Food Sources: Produced by gut bacteria.
Butyrate: The preferred energy source for colon cells and may support intestinal barrier integrity and healthy inflammatory responses.
Food Sources: Produced by gut bacteria.
Digestive Enzymes
Digestive enzymes break food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed.
Amylase: Breaks starch into smaller carbohydrates.
Food Sources: Produced by saliva and the pancreas.
Proteases: Break proteins into amino acids and small peptides.
Food Sources: Produced by the stomach, pancreas and small intestine.
Lipase: Breaks triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol.
Food Sources: Produced primarily by the pancreas.
Lactase: Breaks lactose into glucose and galactose.
Food Sources: Produced by the small intestine.
Sucrase: Breaks sucrose into glucose and fructose.
Food Sources: Produced by the small intestine.
Maltase: Breaks maltose into glucose.
Food Sources: Produced by the small intestine.
Bile Components
Bile supports the digestion and absorption of dietary fats.
Bile Acids: Emulsify dietary fats, allowing digestive enzymes to break them down efficiently.
Food Sources: Produced by the liver from cholesterol.
Bile Salts: Aid in the absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins.
Food Sources: Produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder.
Other Functional Compounds
Mucins: Glycoproteins that form the protective mucus layer lining the digestive tract.
Food Sources: Produced by the body.
Secretory IgA (sIgA): An antibody that helps protect the intestinal lining from harmful microorganisms.
Food Sources: Produced by the immune system.
Human Milk Oligosaccharides (HMOs): Complex carbohydrates that selectively nourish beneficial gut bacteria in infants.
Food Sources: Human breast milk.
7. Organic Acids & Pigments
Organic acids and pigments are naturally occurring compounds that influence the flavour, colour, preservation and metabolism of foods. Many also contribute antioxidant activity and help plants, fungi and animals respond to environmental stress.
Organic Acids
Organic acids occur naturally in fruits, vegetables, fermented foods and animal tissues. They contribute to flavour, food preservation and numerous metabolic pathways.
Citric Acid: A key intermediate in cellular energy production that also contributes a sour taste to foods.
Food Sources: Citrus fruits, berries, tomatoes and many other fruits.
Malic Acid: Participates in energy metabolism and contributes a tart flavour.
Food Sources: Apples, pears, grapes and cherries.
Tartaric Acid: Contributes acidity and stability in fruits.
Food Sources: Grapes, tamarind and bananas.
Acetic Acid: The primary acid in vinegar produced during fermentation.
Food Sources: Vinegar and fermented foods.
Lactic Acid: Produced during fermentation and muscle metabolism, contributing to food preservation and flavour.
Food Sources: Yoghurt, kefir, sauerkraut, kimchi and fermented vegetables.
Succinic Acid: An intermediate of the citric acid cycle involved in cellular energy production.
Food Sources: Mushrooms, cheese, fermented foods and shellfish.
Oxalic Acid: A naturally occurring organic acid that can bind minerals such as calcium.
Food Sources: Spinach, rhubarb, beet greens and cocoa.
Fumaric Acid: An intermediate in cellular metabolism and a natural food acid.
Food Sources: Mushrooms, lichen and small amounts in many plants.
Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C): An antioxidant that supports collagen production, immune function and iron absorption.
Food Sources: Citrus fruits, kiwifruit, strawberries, capsicum and broccoli.
Benzoic Acid: A naturally occurring organic acid with antimicrobial properties.
Food Sources: Cranberries, cloudberries, cinnamon and cloves.
Sorbic Acid: A naturally occurring compound that inhibits the growth of moulds and yeasts.
Food Sources: Rowan berries.
Plant Pigments
Plant pigments absorb and reflect different wavelengths of light, giving plants their characteristic colours while also contributing to photosynthesis, pollination and antioxidant defence.
Chlorophylls
Chlorophyll a: The primary green pigment responsible for photosynthesis.
Food Sources: Spinach, kale, parsley and other leafy green vegetables.
Chlorophyll b: An accessory pigment that expands the range of light absorbed during photosynthesis.
Food Sources: Green leafy vegetables.
Carotenoids
Carotenoids are fat-soluble pigments responsible for yellow, orange and red colours.
Beta-Carotene: A provitamin A carotenoid that also acts as an antioxidant.
Food Sources: Carrots, pumpkin, sweet potatoes and spinach.
Lutein: A yellow pigment that accumulates in the retina and may support eye health.
Food Sources: Kale, spinach, peas and egg yolks.
Zeaxanthin: A carotenoid that works alongside lutein to support healthy vision.
Food Sources: Corn, orange capsicum and spinach.
Lycopene: A red carotenoid with antioxidant properties.
Food Sources: Tomatoes, watermelon and pink grapefruit.
Astaxanthin: A red carotenoid that accumulates in certain marine animals after being obtained from algae.
Food Sources: Salmon, trout, shrimp and krill.
Anthocyanins
Anthocyanins are water-soluble pigments responsible for the red, blue and purple colours of many fruits and vegetables.
Cyanidin: An antioxidant pigment that may help support cardiovascular health.
Food Sources: Blackberries, cherries and red cabbage.
Delphinidin: An antioxidant pigment that may support brain health.
Food Sources: Blueberries and blackcurrants.
Malvidin: An antioxidant pigment associated with dark-coloured berries and grapes.
Food Sources: Red grapes, blueberries and blackberries.
Pelargonidin: A red pigment found mainly in strawberries and raspberries.
Food Sources: Strawberries, raspberries and red radishes.
Betalains
Betalains replace anthocyanins in certain plant families and produce vibrant red and yellow colours.
Betacyanins: Red-purple pigments with antioxidant properties.
Food Sources: Beetroot and prickly pear.
Betaxanthins: Yellow-orange pigments with antioxidant properties.
Food Sources: Golden beetroot and prickly pear.
Flavonoid Pigments
Anthoxanthins: White to pale yellow flavonoid pigments that contribute to the colour of many flowers and vegetables.
Food Sources: Cauliflower, onions and potatoes.
Animal Pigments
Animal pigments contribute to the colour and function of animal tissues.
Heme: An iron-containing pigment responsible for oxygen transport in haemoglobin and myoglobin.
Food Sources: Red meat, liver and blood products.
Myoglobin: The oxygen-storage pigment responsible for the red colour of muscle.
Food Sources: Beef, lamb and other red meats.
Fungal Pigments
Fungi produce pigments that protect against ultraviolet radiation and environmental stress.
Melanin: A protective pigment that helps shield fungal cells from oxidative damage and ultraviolet radiation.
Food Sources: Dark-coloured mushrooms.
Carotenoids: Some fungi produce carotenoid pigments similar to those found in plants.
Food Sources: Certain yeast and mushroom species.
Natural Colour-Changing Pigments
Some pigments change colour depending on pH or food processing.
Anthocyanins: Change from red in acidic conditions to purple or blue in alkaline conditions.
Food Sources: Red cabbage, blueberries and blackberries.
Chlorophyll: Changes from bright green to olive-green during prolonged heating due to the loss of magnesium.
Food Sources: Green vegetables.
Myoglobin: Changes from purple to bright red and eventually brown depending on oxygen exposure and cooking.
Food Sources: Fresh meat.
Browning Pigments
These pigments form during food storage, preparation and cooking.
Melanoidins: Brown compounds formed during the Maillard reaction that contribute to the colour and flavour of bread crusts, roasted coffee and grilled meats.
Food Sources: Roasted coffee, toasted bread, baked goods and roasted meats.
Caramel Pigments: Brown pigments formed when sugars are heated.
Food Sources: Caramel, baked desserts and roasted foods.
Enzymatic Browning Pigments: Brown pigments produced when enzymes react with oxygen after fruits or vegetables are cut.
Food Sources: Apples, bananas, avocados and potatoes.
8. Cross-Cutting Factors
The nutritional value of food is influenced by more than the nutrients and bioactive compounds it contains. Digestion, preparation, storage, cooking and interactions between compounds all affect how efficiently nutrients are absorbed and used by the body.
Bioavailability
Bioavailability refers to the proportion of a nutrient or bioactive compound that is absorbed and utilised by the body.
Bioavailability: The fraction of a compound that reaches the bloodstream and becomes available for physiological functions.
Examples: Iron from meat is generally absorbed more efficiently than iron from plants, while the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins increases when consumed with dietary fat.
Food Matrix
The food matrix describes how nutrients, fibre, fats, proteins and other compounds are naturally packaged within a food.
Food Matrix: The physical and chemical structure of food that influences digestion, nutrient absorption and biological effects.
Examples: Whole almonds provide fewer absorbable calories than almond butter because intact cell walls reduce fat release during digestion.
Nutrient Synergy
Some nutrients and bioactive compounds enhance each other’s absorption or function.
Vitamin C & Iron: Vitamin C improves the absorption of non-haem iron from plant foods.
Food Sources: Citrus fruits with legumes or leafy greens.
Vitamin D & Calcium: Vitamin D increases calcium absorption from the intestine.
Food Sources: Fatty fish with dairy products or fortified foods.
Vitamin K₂ & Vitamin D: Vitamin D supports calcium absorption, while vitamin K₂ helps direct calcium into bones and teeth.
Food Sources: Natto, cheese, egg yolks and oily fish.
Fat & Fat-Soluble Vitamins: Dietary fat improves the absorption of vitamins A, D, E and K, along with carotenoids.
Food Sources: Olive oil with leafy greens or avocado with vegetables.
Piperine & Curcumin: Piperine increases the absorption of curcumin.
Food Sources: Black pepper with turmeric.
Nutrient Competition
Some nutrients compete for absorption because they share similar transport pathways.
Calcium & Iron: Large amounts of calcium may temporarily reduce iron absorption when consumed together.
Zinc & Copper: Excessive zinc intake may reduce copper absorption.
Iron & Zinc: High supplemental doses may reduce the absorption of one another.
Nutrient Storage
Different nutrients are stored in different tissues and for varying lengths of time.
Fat-Soluble Vitamins: Stored primarily in the liver and body fat.
Examples: Vitamins A, D, E and K.
Water-Soluble Vitamins: Stored only in small amounts and generally require regular intake.
Examples: Vitamin C and most B vitamins.
Glycogen: The storage form of glucose found in the liver and skeletal muscles.
Triglycerides: The primary storage form of energy in adipose tissue.
Nutrient Stability
Nutrients differ in their sensitivity to heat, oxygen, moisture, light and storage.
Heat-Sensitive Nutrients: Vitamin C, folate and some enzymes are readily degraded by prolonged heating.
Examples: Fresh fruits and vegetables.
Light-SSensitive Nutrients: Riboflavin and chlorophyll degrade with prolonged light exposure.
Examples: Milk and leafy greens.
Oxygen-Sensitive Nutrients: Vitamin C, vitamin E and many polyphenols oxidise when exposed to air.
Examples: Cut fruit and vegetable juices.
Food Processing
Processing can either reduce or improve the nutritional value of foods depending on the method used.
Mechanical Processing: Cutting, grinding and blending may improve digestibility while increasing exposure to oxygen.
Examples: Flour, smoothies and nut butters.
Thermal Processing: Heating may improve digestibility and destroy harmful microorganisms while reducing heat-sensitive nutrients.
Examples: Cooking vegetables and pasteurising milk.
Fermentation: Microorganisms transform food chemistry, producing beneficial compounds and improving digestibility.
Examples: Yoghurt, kimchi, sauerkraut, kefir and bee bread.
Sprouting: Germination activates enzymes and may increase the availability of vitamins and minerals.
Examples: Sprouted grains and legumes.
Cooking Methods
Different cooking methods alter nutrients in different ways.
Boiling: May cause water-soluble vitamins and minerals to leach into cooking water.
Examples: Potatoes, carrots and leafy vegetables.
Steaming: Helps retain more water-soluble nutrients than boiling.
Examples: Broccoli, spinach and green beans.
Roasting: Enhances flavour through caramelisation and the Maillard reaction while reducing some heat-sensitive nutrients.
Examples: Vegetables, coffee and meats.
Frying: Increases energy density and may degrade oils if overheated.
Examples: Chips, fried fish and fried vegetables.
Pressure Cooking: Reduces cooking time and generally preserves more nutrients than prolonged boiling.
Examples: Legumes and root vegetables.
Food Storage
Storage conditions influence nutrient retention and food quality.
Refrigeration: Slows microbial growth and enzymatic activity.
Examples: Fresh fruits, vegetables and dairy.
Freezing: Preserves most nutrients for extended periods.
Examples: Frozen vegetables, fruits and seafood.
Drying: Removes water to extend shelf life while concentrating many nutrients.
Examples: Herbs, mushrooms and dried fruit.
Canning: Extends shelf life but may reduce some heat-sensitive vitamins.
Examples: Tomatoes, beans and fish.
Nutrient Density
Nutrient density compares the amount of beneficial nutrients relative to the energy content of a food.
Nutrient-Dense Foods: Foods that provide high amounts of vitamins, minerals and other beneficial compounds for relatively few calories.
Examples: Leafy greens, berries, seafood, eggs and legumes.
Energy Density
Energy density refers to the amount of energy provided per gram of food.
Low Energy Density: Foods containing large amounts of water or fibre.
Examples: Vegetables, fruits and soups.
High Energy Density: Foods rich in fats or low in water.
Examples: Nuts, oils, butter and chocolate.
Glycaemic Index (GI)
The glycaemic index ranks carbohydrate-containing foods according to how quickly they raise blood glucose levels.
Low GI Foods: Produce a slower rise in blood glucose.
Food Sources: Legumes, oats and most whole fruits.
High GI Foods: Produce a faster rise in blood glucose.
Food Sources: White bread, potatoes and glucose.
Glycaemic Load (GL)
Glycaemic load considers both the glycaemic index and the amount of carbohydrate consumed.
Glycaemic Load: A more practical measure of a meal’s overall effect on blood glucose.
Oxidation
Oxidation is a chemical reaction in which compounds lose electrons through exposure to oxygen or reactive molecules. Excessive oxidation can damage lipids, proteins and DNA, while antioxidants help limit this process.
Examples: Browning of apples, rancidity of oils and oxidative changes during prolonged food storage.
Antioxidants
Antioxidants donate electrons to unstable molecules called free radicals, helping reduce oxidative damage.
Examples: Vitamin C, vitamin E, carotenoids, polyphenols and glutathione.
Free Radicals
Free radicals are unstable molecules with unpaired electrons that are produced during normal metabolism and by environmental exposures such as ultraviolet radiation, pollution and smoking.
Examples: Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS).
Oxidative Stress
Oxidative stress occurs when the production of free radicals exceeds the body’s antioxidant defences, leading to cellular damage.
Examples: Can occur during chronic inflammation, intense exercise, smoking or prolonged environmental stress.
Hormesis
Hormesis describes the biological response to low levels of stress that stimulate protective adaptations.
Hormesis: Mild stress activates cellular repair and defence mechanisms that increase resilience.
Examples: Exercise, fasting, heat exposure, cold exposure and certain plant compounds such as sulforaphane.
9. Anti-Nutrients
Anti-nutrients are naturally occurring compounds that can reduce the digestion, absorption or utilisation of certain nutrients. They are found primarily in plants as part of their natural defence system against insects, animals and environmental stress.
Although they can decrease the absorption of some nutrients under certain conditions, many anti-nutrients also possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory or other beneficial biological properties. Traditional food preparation methods such as soaking, sprouting, fermenting and cooking often reduce their concentration.
Phytates
Phytates are the primary storage form of phosphorus in seeds, grains, legumes and nuts.
Phytic Acid (Phytate): Binds minerals such as iron, zinc, calcium and magnesium, reducing their absorption. It also has antioxidant properties and may help protect cells from oxidative stress.
Food Sources: Whole grains, legumes, nuts, seeds and bran.
Oxalates
Oxalates are organic compounds produced naturally by many plants.
Oxalic Acid: Binds calcium and other minerals, reducing their absorption and contributing to the formation of calcium oxalate kidney stones in susceptible individuals.
Food Sources: Spinach, beet greens, Swiss chard, rhubarb, cocoa and almonds.
Lectins
Lectins are carbohydrate-binding proteins that help protect plants against insects and pathogens.
Lectins: May interfere with nutrient absorption and digestion when consumed in large amounts from raw or undercooked foods. Proper cooking substantially reduces their activity.
Food Sources: Kidney beans, soybeans, lentils, peanuts and whole grains.
Tannins
Tannins are polyphenols that contribute bitterness and astringency.
Tannins: May reduce the absorption of non-haem iron by binding to iron in the digestive tract. They also possess antioxidant properties.
Food Sources: Tea, coffee, cocoa, grapes, berries and some legumes.
Saponins
Saponins are soap-like compounds produced by many plants.
Saponins: May reduce the absorption of certain nutrients by interacting with cell membranes, while also exhibiting antioxidant and immune-supporting properties.
Food Sources: Legumes, quinoa, soybeans and ginseng.
Protease Inhibitors
Protease inhibitors reduce the activity of digestive enzymes that break down proteins.
Trypsin Inhibitors: Reduce protein digestion by inhibiting the enzyme trypsin. Heat largely destroys these compounds.
Food Sources: Soybeans, legumes and some grains.
Chymotrypsin Inhibitors: Reduce the activity of chymotrypsin, another protein-digesting enzyme.
Food Sources: Legumes and potatoes.
Amylase Inhibitors
Amylase inhibitors reduce the digestion of starch.
Alpha-Amylase Inhibitors: Slow the breakdown of starch into glucose, reducing carbohydrate digestion.
Food Sources: White kidney beans, legumes and whole grains.
Goitrogens
Goitrogens are compounds that may interfere with thyroid hormone production when iodine intake is inadequate.
Glucosinolates
Goitrogenic Glucosinolates: Certain glucosinolates can be converted into compounds that compete with iodine uptake by the thyroid.
Food Sources: Broccoli, cabbage, kale, cauliflower and Brussels sprouts.
Thiocyanates
Thiocyanates: Breakdown products of glucosinolates that may reduce iodine uptake when consumed in very large amounts.
Food Sources: Cruciferous vegetables.
Cyanogenic Glycosides
Cyanogenic glycosides release hydrogen cyanide when plant tissues are damaged.
Amygdalin: A cyanogenic glycoside that releases small amounts of hydrogen cyanide after enzymatic breakdown.
Food Sources: Bitter almonds, apricot kernels, peach kernels and apple seeds.
Linamarin: A cyanogenic glycoside naturally present in cassava.
Food Sources: Cassava.
Glycoalkaloids
Glycoalkaloids protect members of the nightshade family from insects and disease.
Solanine: A glycoalkaloid that may cause gastrointestinal and neurological symptoms when consumed in excessive amounts.
Food Sources: Green potatoes and potato sprouts.
Chaconine: Often occurs alongside solanine and contributes to potato toxicity.
Food Sources: Potatoes, particularly green or damaged potatoes.
Gossypol
Gossypol: A polyphenolic compound that protects cotton plants from insects and may interfere with iron metabolism and reproduction when consumed in large amounts.
Food Sources: Cottonseed.
Vicine & Convicine
Vicine: A glycoside that can trigger haemolytic anaemia (favism) in people with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency.
Food Sources: Fava beans.
Convicine: A glycoside that acts alongside vicine in favism.
Food Sources: Fava beans.
Purines
Purines are naturally occurring nitrogen-containing compounds that are broken down into uric acid.
Purines: High dietary intakes may contribute to elevated uric acid levels in susceptible individuals.
Food Sources: Organ meats, anchovies, sardines, mackerel, shellfish and yeast extracts.
Food Preparation Methods
Traditional preparation methods substantially reduce many anti-nutrients while improving digestibility and nutrient availability.
Soaking: Reduces phytates, tannins and some enzyme inhibitors.
Examples: Beans, lentils and whole grains.
Sprouting: Activates natural enzymes that reduce phytates and increase vitamin availability.
Examples: Sprouted legumes and grains.
Fermentation: Beneficial microorganisms degrade phytates and other anti-nutrients while producing additional bioactive compounds.
Examples: Sourdough bread, tempeh, miso, kimchi and bee bread.
Boiling: Reduces lectins, oxalates and enzyme inhibitors by dissolving or destroying them.
Examples: Kidney beans, spinach and potatoes.
Putting Anti-Nutrients into Perspective
Anti-nutrients are a natural component of many nutritious foods. In a varied diet, they rarely cause nutrient deficiencies, particularly when foods are properly prepared. Many also possess antioxidant, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties, demonstrating that the effects of food compounds often depend on the amount consumed, preparation method and overall dietary pattern.
Sources
- National Institutes of Health – Office of Dietary Supplements
- USDA FoodData Central
- Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
- European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)
- Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University
- Gropper SS, Smith JL. Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism. Cengage.
- Ross AC, Caballero B, Cousins RJ, Tucker KL, Ziegler TR. Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease.
- Damodaran S, Parkin KL, Fennema OR. Fennema’s Food Chemistry.
- Nelson DL, Cox MM. Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry.
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